History

Tikse monastery, Ladakh

Neolithic rock carvings have been found in many parts of Ladakh, showing that the area has been inhabited from early times. Ladakh's earliest inhabitants consisted of a mixed Indo-Aryan population of Mons, and Dards, who find mention in the works of Herodotus, Nearchus, Megasthenes, Pliny,Ptolemy , and the geographical lists of the Puranas. Around the 1st century, Ladakh was a part of the Kushana empire. Buddhism came to western Ladakh via India, particularly Kashmir, as early as the 2nd century, while much of eastern Ladakh and western Tibet was still practicing the Bon religion. Some descriptions are also available in the accounts of the 7th century Buddhist traveler Hsuan-tsang.

Hemis Monastery in the 1870s
King Bhagan reunited and strengthened Ladakh and founded the Namgyal dynasty, which survives even today. The Namgyals repelled most Central Asian raiders and temporarily extended the kingdom as far as Nepal , although were faced with concerted efforts towards conversion of Ladakh to Islam and destruction of Buddhist artifacts. In early 17th century efforts were made towards restoration of destroyed artifacts and gompas, and the kingdom was expanded into Zanskar and Spiti. Ladakh was, however defeated by the Mughals, who had already annexed Kashmir and Baltistan.

Ladakh sided with Bhutan in a religious dispute between Tibet and Bhutan, which resulted in an attempted invasion by Tibet. Kashmiri help restored Ladakhi rule at the condition of building of a mosque in Leh and the conversion of the Ladakhi king to Islam. The Treaty of Temisgam in 1684 settled the dispute between Tibet and Ladakh, but its independence was seriously restricted.

Operation Duck, raid on Ladakh 15 Aug 1948 - 1 Nov 1948


Operation Easy, subsequent repulsion by Indian army. Punch link-up 1 Nov 1948 - 26 Nov 1948

In 1834, Dogras, under General Zorawar Singh invaded and annexed Ladakh. In 1842 there was a rebellion in Ladakh, which was crushed and Ladakh was incorporated into the Dogra state of Jammu and Kashmir. The King Jigmet Namgyal was given the jagir of Stok, and the Namgyal family remains the jagirdar of Stok to this day, and is honored by Ladakhis as Gyalpo or king. Starting from the 1850s, European influence increased in Ladakh — geologists, sportsmen and tourists started exploring Ladakh. In 1885, Leh became the headquarters of a mission of the Moravian Church.

In 1947, partition of India left Ladakh a part of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, to be administered from Srinagar. In 1948, Pakistani raiders invaded Ladakh and occupied Kargil and Zanskar, reaching within 30 km of Leh[7] Kargil was a scene of fighting again in 1965, 1971, and 1999.

In 1949, China closed the border between Nubra and Sinkiang, blocking old trade routes. The Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950 led to a large influx of Tibetan migrants in the region. In 1962, China invaded and occupied Aksai Chin, and promptly built roads through Aksai Chin connecting Sinkiang and Tibet, and the Karakoram highway, jointly with Pakistan. India built the Srinagar-Leh highway during this period, cutting the journey time between Srinagar to Leh from 16 days to two.

Geography


The Pangong lake in Ladakh.

Ladakh is India’s highest plateau (much of it being over 3,000 m), spanning the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and the upper Indus River valley. Historic Ladakh consists of a number of distinct areas, including the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote Zanskar (in the south) and Nubra valleys (to the north over Khardung La ), the almost deserted Aksai Chin (under Chinese rule) and Kargil and Suru Valley areas in the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). Before partition, Baltistan (now under Pakistani rule) was one of the districts of Ladakh. Skardu was the winter capital of Ladakh while Leh was the summer capital.

The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the Indian plate into the stationary landmass of Asia. The drift continues and causing frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. The peaks in the Ladakh range are at a medium altitude close to the Zoji-la (5,000-5,500 metres, 16,000 - 18,050 ft), and increase towards south-east, reaching a climax in the twin summits of Nun-Kun (7000 m, 23,000 ft).

Map of the central Ladakh region
The Suru and Zanskar valleys form a great trough enclosed by the Himalayas and the Zanskar range. Rangdum is the last inhabited region in the Suru valley. From Rangdum the valley rises to 4,400 metres (14,436 ft) at Pensi-la, the gateway into Zanskar. Kargil, the only town in the Suru valley, was an important staging post on the routes of the trade caravans before 1947, being more or less equidistant, at about 230 kilometres from Srinagar, Leh, Skardu, and Padum.

The Khardung-la pass, believed to be the highest motorable pass in the world at 5,602 m or 18,380 ft)

The Zanskar valley lies in the troughs of the Stod and the Lungnak rivers. The region suffers heavy snowfall, and the Pensi-la opens only in June, and is blocked again in mid-October. The Indus river is the backbone of Ladakh — all major towns historically and currently, Shey, Leh, Basgo, and Tingmosgang, are situated close to the river.

The Ladakh range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6,000 metres (19,700 ft), and few of its passes are less than 5,000 metres (16,400 ft). The Pang-gong range runs parallel to the Ladakh range about 100 km northwest from Chushul, along the southern shore of the Pang-gong Lake Its highest range is 6,700 metres (22,000 ft), and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated.

The region comprising the valley of Shayok and Nubra rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan. North of the Karakoram lies the Kunlun. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia, there is a triple barrier — Ladakh range, Karakoram range, and Kunlun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand.

Sedimentary rock formations in Ladakh


Monthly average temperature in Leh.

Ladakh is a high altitude desert, because the Himalayas create a rain shadow, denying entry to monsoon clouds. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. Recent flooding of the Indus river in the region has been attributed either to abnormal rain patterns, or the retreating of glaciers, both of which might be linked to global warming The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas — Dras, the Suru valley and Zanskar — experience heavy snowfall and remain virtually cut off from the rest of the country for several months in the year. Summers are short, although long enough to grow crops in the lower reaches of the Suru valley. The summer weather is dry and pleasant, with average temperatures between 10–20 °C (50–70 °F), while in winter, the temperature may dip to around -15 °C (5 °F). The proportion of oxygen is less than in many other places at a comparable altitude because of lack of vegetation. There is little moisture to temper the effects of rarified air. Ladakh lies in the Very High Damage Risk cyclone zone.

Flora and fauna

The wildlife of this region was first studied by Ferdinand Stoliczka, an Austrian/Czech palaeontologist, who carried out a massive expedition in the region in the 1870s. There are hardly any trees and vegetation in sight in much of Ladakh, except for the few narrow valleys, where wild roses, willow groves and some herbs could be seen. However, above that, due to the rapid decrease in temperature, vegetation becomes stunted and sparse. The fauna of Ladakh have much in common with that of Central Asia generally, and especially those of the Tibetan Plateau. An exception to this are the birds, many of which migrate from the warmer parts of India to spend the summer in Ladakh. For such an arid area, Ladakh has a great diversity of birds — a total of 225 species have been recorded.

Hoopoe is a common bird in Ladakh

Many species of finches, robins, redstarts (like the Black Redstart) and the Hoopoe are common in summer. The Brown-headed Gull is seen in summer on the river Indus, and on some lakes of the Changthang. Resident water-birds include the Brahminy duck also known as the Ruddy Sheldrake and the Bar-headed Goose. The Black-necked Crane(Ladakhi: Thung Thung) is a rare species found scattered in the Tibetan plateau is also found in parts of Ladakh. Other birds include the Raven, Red-billed Chough, Tibetan Snowcock and Chukar. The Lammergeier and the Golden Eagle are common raptors here.

The endangered Ibex found in high craggy terrain, numbers several thousand in Ladakh often spotted by trekkers. The Bharal, or blue sheep, is even more common, ranging in the Himalayas from Ladakh east as far as Sikkim. The Shapu is a rare goat that numbers about a thousand. Found at lower elevations, mostly in river valleys, they compete with domesticated animals. The Argali, or Nayan, is a relative of the Marco Polo sheep of the Pamirs. They are impressive animals with huge horizontal curving horns, numbering only a couple hundred in Ladakh, but found in a wide range through out mountainous areas of the Chinese Provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Gansu.

White yak

The Chiru, or Tibetan antelope, (known in Ladakhi as Stos) is also endangered.It has traditionally been hunted for its wool The wool obtained from the Chiru is called Shahtoosh, which is valued in South Asia for its light weight and warmth and as a status symbol. Owning or trading in Shahtoosh is now illegal in most countries. The Kyang, or Tibetan Wild Ass, is common in the grasslands of Changthang, numbering about 1,500 individuals.

The Snow Leopard (Ladakhi: Shan) once ranged throughout the Himalayas, Tibet, and as far as the Sayan mountains on the Mongolian-Russian border; and in elevation from 1800 m to 5400 m. It is believed there are about 200 in Ladakh, especially in the Hemis High Altitude National Park. Other cats in Ladakh are even rarer than the snow leopard, the Lynx, numbering only a few individuals, and the Pallas's cat, which looks like a house cat. The Tibetan Wolf preys on the livestock of the Ladakhis and as such is the most persecuted, reduced to just about 300 animals. There are also a few brown bears in the Suru valley and the area around Dras. The Tibetan Sand Fox has recently been discovered in this region. Among smaller animals, Marmots, voles, hares, and several types of Pika are common.

Demographics


An archery contest in Leh, Ladakh


Children from Ladakh.


Muslim girls in Kargil

Ladakh has a population of about 200,000, which is a blend of many different races, in particular the Tibetans and the Dards. People of Dard descent predominate in Dras and Dha-Hanu valleys. Dha-Hanu are known as Brokpa are followers of Tibetan Buddhism and have preserved much of their original traditions and customs. The Dards around Dras, however, have converted to Islam, and have been strongly influenced by their Kashmiri neighbours. The Mons are descendants of earlier Indian settlers in Ladakh. They work as musicians, blacksmiths and carpenters.

Unlike the rest of Jammu and Kashmir which is mainly Islamic, a plurality of Ladakhis are Tibetan Buddhist (50%), with most of the rest being Shia Muslims (45%). There are also small numbers of followers of Bon religion, Hinduism ,Sikhism and Christianity. Most Buddhists follow the tantric form of Buddhism known as Vajrayana Buddhism. The population following Islam predominantly adhere to Shia form of Islam, principally among the related Balti. The people are of Tibetan descent with some Dardic admixture; the Balti are believed to have more Dardic ancestry than the Ladakhis. The Changpa nomads who live in the Rupshu plateau are pure Tibetans, and it was probably herders like them who first settled in Ladakh and Baltistan. Since the early 1960s their numbers have increased as Chang Tang nomads from across the border flee the Chinese-ruled Tibet. There are about 3,500 refugees in Leh alone. Muslim Arghons, descendants of Kashmiri or Central Asian merchants and Ladakhi women mainly live in Leh.

The appearance and lifestyle of both central Ladakhis and Zanskaris reflect a strong influence from Central Tibet, which diminishes westwards, being replaced by that of Dards. The Baltis of Kargil, Nubra, Suru Valley, and Baltistan, however, show strong Tibetan links in their appearance, and language, and were Buddhists until recent times.

The sex ratio for Leh district has declined from 1011 in 1951, to 805 in 2001, while for Kargil district, it has declined from 970 to 901[24]. The urban sex ratio in both the districts is about 640. About 84% of Ladakh's population lives in villages. The average annual population growth rate from 1981-2001 was 2.75% in Leh District and 2.83% in Kargil district.

Culture


Sacred festival (Tsechu) at Lamayuru monastery

Ladakhi culture is similar to Tibetan culture. Ladakhi food has much in common with Tibetan food, the most prominent foods being Thukpa, noodle soup; and Tsumpa, known in Ladakhi as Ngampe, roasted barley flour, eatable without cooking it makes useful, if dull trekking food. A dish that is strictly Ladakhi is skyu, a heavy pasta dish with root vegetables. As Ladakh moves toward a less sustainable, cash based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common.

Like in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong black tea, butter, and salt, it is mixed in a large churn and known as gurgur cha, due to the sound of mixing it. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made Indian style with milk and sugar. Chang, an alcoholic beverage, is made from barley, and has a yeasty taste slightly similar to sake.

The language of Ladakh is Ladakhi, a Tibetan dialect that is different enough from Tibetan that Ladakhis and Tibetans often speak Hindi or English when they need to communicate. Urban Ladakhis usually know Hindi/Urdu and often English.

Chorten in Ladakh

The architecture of Ladakh contains Tibetan and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, is a common feature on every Gompa. The Chörten have four-sided walls in Ladakh, as opposed to round walls in parts of Tibet . Many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth.

Traditional Ladakhi music, like Tibetan music, often involves religious chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals. Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables.

Religious mask dances are an important part of Ladakh's cultural life. The Hemis monastery, a leading centre of Drugpa Buddhism, is a centre for an annual masked dance festival. The dances typically narrate a story of fight between good and evil, ending with the eventual victory of the former . Weaving is an important part of traditional life in eastern Ladakh. Both women and men weave, on a different loom . Typical costumes include Gonchas of velvet, elaborately embroidered waistcoats and boots, and gonads or hats.

Archery is a popular sport in Ladakh. Archery festivals are held during the summer months in villages. These are competitive events, to which all the surrounding villages send their teams. The sport is conducted with strict etiquette, to the accompaniment of the music of surna and daman (oboe and drum). Polo, the other traditional sport of Ladakh is indigenous to Baltistan and Gilgit, and was probably introduced into Ladakh in the mid-17th century by King Singge Namgyal, whose mother was a Balti princess.

The Ladakh festival is held every year in September. The people, adorned with gold and silver ornaments and turquoise headgears throng the streets. Monks wear colourful masks and dance to the rhythm of cymbals, flutes and trumpets. The Yak, Lion and Tashishpa dances depict the many legends and fables of Ladakh. Buddhist monasteries sporting prayer flags, display of 'tankhas', archery competitions, a mock marriage, and horse-polo are the some highlights of this festival.

A feature of Ladakhi society that distinguishes it from the rest of the state is the high status and complete emancipation enjoyed by women. A related feature is the absence of a caste system, although class distinctions do exist. Fraternal polyandry and inheritance by primogeniture were actively practiced in Ladakh until the early 1940s, when these were made illegal by the then government of Jammu and Kashmir, although they still exist in remote areas. Another custom was known as khang-bu, or 'little house', in which the elders of a family, as soon as the eldest son has reached years of discretion, retire from participation in affairs, and taking only enough of the property for their own sustenance, yielding the headship of the family to him.

Education
Traditionally, there was little or nothing by way of formal education except in the gompas. Usually, one son from every family was obliged to master the Tibetan script to read the holy books.

The first school providing western education was opened by the Moravian Mission in Leh in October 1889, and the Wazir-i Wazarat of Baltistan and Ladakh ordered that every family with more than one child should send one of these to school. This order met with great resistance from the local population, who feared that the children will be forced to convert to Christianity. The school taught Tibetan, Urdu, English, Geography, Sciences, Nature study, Arithmetic, Geometry and Bible study.

According to the 2001 census, the overall literacy rate in the Leh District is 62% (72% for males and 50% for females), while it is 58% in Kargil district (74% for males and 41% for females). Schools are well distributed throughout Ladakh, but 75% of them provide only primary education. 65% of the children attend school, but absenteeism of both students and teachers remains high. Education is based on a Western curriculum, and the Ladakhi language is not taught. Students learn Urdu until the age of 14, after which, the medium of education is English. In both districts the failure-rate at school-leaving level (class X) had for many years been around 85-95%, while of those managing to scrape through, barely half succeed in qualifying for college entrance (class XII.) In 1993 the Students' Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) launched 'Operation New Hope' (ONH), a campaign to provide 'culturally appropriate and locally relevant education'. By 1995, ONH principles were being implemented in about 35 government schools. A government degree college has been opened in Leh, thus enabling students to pursue higher education without having to leave Ladakh.

Government and politics

Ladakh is governed by the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, which is based on the pattern of Darjeeling Gorkha Autonomous Hill Council. It was created under the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council Act, 1995, following demands of Ladakhi people to make the district a new Indian union territory because of its religious and cultural differences with Kashmir. In October 1993, the Indian government and the State government agreed to grant Ladakh the status of Autonomous Hill Council. The council came into being with the holding of elections on August 28,1995. The inaugural meeting of the council was held at Leh on September 3,1995. The concept was introduced in Kargil in July 2003, when Kargil Autonomous Hill Development Council was established.

The council works with village panchayats, to make decisions regarding economic development, healthcare, education, land use, taxation, and local governance which are further reviewed at the Block Headquarters in the presence of the Chief Executive Councilor and Executive Councilors. The state government of Jammu and Kashmir looks after law and order, judicial system, communications and the higher education in the region.

The Ladakh Union Territory Front's (LUTF) still demands union territory status for Ladakh, which is opposed by Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, which supports trifurcation of Jammu and Kashmir. According to the Kargil Autonomous Hill Development Council, LUTF's demand for UT status is confined to Leh district only. The council has put forth the demand for a Greater Ladakh which would include Gilgit, Skardu and Baltistan.

Ladakh is a Lok Sabha (lower house of the Indian parliament) constituency. The member of parliament from Ladakh in the current Lok Sabha is Thupstan Chhewang, an independent politician.

Economy


Market in Leh

For centuries, Ladakh has enjoyed a stable and self-reliant agricultural economy based on growing barley, wheat and peas, and the keeping of livestock, especially yak, dzos (yak-cow cross breed), cows, sheep and goats. At altitudes of between 3,000 and 4,300 m (10,000 and 14,000 ft), the growing season is only a few months long every year. Animals are scarce, and water is in short supply. The Ladakhis developed a small-scale farming system adapted to the unique environment. The land is irrigated by a system of channels which funnel water from the melted ice and snow of the mountains. The principal crop is barley, the mainstay of traditional Ladakhi food. Rice had previously been a luxury in the Ladakhi diet, but has now become cheap and staple. At lower elevations fruit is grown successfully, while the high altitude Rupshu region is the preserve of nomadic herders. Surplus produce is traded for tea, sugar, salt and other items. Two items for export are apricots and pashmina. Grim, or naked barley is the staple crop all over Ladakh. It is sowed in May and reaped in mid-July. Growing times vary considerably with altitude. The extreme limit of cultivation as at Karzok, on the Tso-moriri Late, at 4,600 m (15,100 ft), which are said to be the highest fields in the world.

In the past, Ladakh's geographical position at the crossroads of some of the most important trade routes in Asia was exploited to the full. Ladakh collected tax on the goods that crossed their kingdom from Turkistan, Tibet, Punjab, Kashmir and Baltistan. A minority of Ladakhi people were also employed as merchants and caravan traders, facilitating trade in textiles, carpets, dyestuffs and narcotics between Punjab and Sinkiang. However, since the Chinese Government closed the borders into Tibet and Central Asia, this international trade has completely dried up.

Leh Bazaar prior to 1871

Since 1974, the Indian Government has encouraged a shift in trekking and other tourist activities from the troubled Kashmir region to the relatively unaffected areas of Ladakh. Although tourism employs only 4% of Ladakh's working population, it accounts for 50% of the region's GNP . Tourism has thus become a major source of income for what previously was a subsistence, agricultural economy, based on growing barley, wheat and peas, and the keeping of livestock, especially yak, dzos (yak-cow cross breed), cows, sheep and goats. Large-scale infrastructure projects — including, crucially, road links — have helped consolidate the new economy and create an urban alternative to farming. The combination of subsidised food and the new infrastructure accelerated a mass migration of menfolk from the farms into Leh to serve the tourism industry.

Adventure tourism in Ladakh started in the 19th century. By the turn of the 20th century, it was not uncommon for British officials to undertake the 14 stage trek from Srinagar to Leh as part of their annual leave. Agencies were set up in Srinagar and Shimla to specialise sport related activities — hunting, fishing and trekking. This era is recorded in Arthur Neves The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh and Skardo, first published in 1911 . Today, about 18,000 tourists visit Ladakh every year. Bounded by two mighty mountain ranges, it is a popular place for adventure tourism. The well-preserved Tibetan-Buddhist culture makes it even more attractive.

Among the popular places of tourist interest include Leh, Drass valley, Suru valley, Kargil, Zanskar, Zangla, Rangdum, Padum, Phugthal, Sani, Stongdey, Shyok Valley, Sankoo, Salt Valley and several popular trek routes like Manali to Ladakh, the Nubra valley, the Indus valley etc.

Transport
Ladakh was the connection point of Central Asia and South Asia when the Silk Road was in use. The sixty-day journey on the Ladakh route connecting Amritsar and Yarkand through eleven passes was frequently undertaken by traders till the third quarter of the 19th century. Another common route in regular use was the Kalimpong route between Leh and Lhasa via Gartok, the administrative centre of western Tibet. Gartok could be reached either straight up the Indus in winter, or through either the Taglang la or the Chang la. Beyond Gartok, the Cherko la brought travelers to the Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes, and then to Barka, which is connected to the main Lhasa road. These traditional routes have been closed since the Ladakh-Tibet border has been sealed by the Chinese government. Other less used routes connected Ladakh to Hunza and Chitral.

In present times, the only two land routes to Ladakh in use are from Srinagar and Manali. Travelers from Srinagar start their journey from Sonamarg, through the Zoji la pass (3,450 m, 11,320 ft) via Dras and Kargil (2,750 m, 9,022 ft) passing through Namika la (3,700 m, 12,140 ft) and Fatu la (4,100 m, 13,450 ft.) This has been the main traditional gateway to Ladakh since historical times. However, with the rise of militancy in Kashmir, the main corridor for accessing the area has shifted from the Srinagar-Kargil-Leh route through Zoji la, to the high altitude Manali-Leh Highway from Himachal Pradesh. The highway crosses four passes, Rohtang la (3,978 m, 13,050 ft), Baralacha la (4,892 m, 16,050 ft), Lungalacha la (5,059 m, 16,600 ft), Tangtang la (5,325 m, 17,470 ft) and is open only between July and September, when snow is cleared from the road. There is one airport, situated at Leh, from which there are multiple daily flights to Delhi on Jet Airways and Indian, and weekly flights to Srinagar.

A bus on the Leh-Kargil highway

Buses run from Leh to the surrounding villages. There is about 1800 km of roads in Ladakh, of which 800 km is surfaced.[42]. The Manali-Leh-Srinagar road makes up about half of that, the remainder being spurs off it. Ladakh is criss-crossed by a complex network of mountain trails which, even today provide the only link between the majority of valleys, villages and high pastures. For the traveler with a number of months it is possible to trek from one end of Ladakh to the other, or even from places in Himachal Pradesh. The large number of trails and the limited number of roads allows one to string together routes that have road access often enough to restock supplies, but avoid walking on motor roads almost entirely.